Hydrocephalus is a build up of fluid inside the skull, leading to brain swelling. Hydrocephalus means "water on the brain."
Causes
Hydrocephalus is due to a problem with the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the liquid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. The fluid brings nutrients to the brain, takes away waste from the brain, and acts as a cushion.
CSF normally moves through areas of the brain called ventricles, then around the outside of the brain and the spinal cord. It is then reabsorbed into the bloodstream.. Build up of CSF can occur in the brain if it's flow or absorption is blocked, or if too much CSF is produced.
This build up of fluid puts pressure on the brain, pushing the brain up against the skull and damaging or destroying brain tissues.
Hydrocephalus may start while the baby is growing in the womb. It is commonly present with myelomeningocele , a birth defect involving incomplete closure of the spinal column. Genetic defects and certain infections that occur during pregnancy may also cause hydrocephalus.
In young children, hydrocephalus may also be associated with the following conditions:
• Infections that affect the central nervous system (such as meningitis or encephalitis ), especially in infants
• Bleeding in the brain during or soon after delivery (especially in premature babies)
• Injury before, during, or after childbirth, including subarachnoid hemorrhage
• Tumors of the central nervous system, including the brain or spinal cord
• Injury or trauma
Hydrocephalus most often occurs in children, but may also occur in adults and the elderly. See: Normal pressure hydrocephalus
Symptoms
The symptoms depend on the cause of the blockage, the person's age, and how much brain tissue has been damaged by the swelling.
In infants with hydrocephalus, CSF fluid builds up in the central nervous system, causing the fontanelle (soft spot) to bulge and the head to be larger than expected. Early symptoms may also include:
• Eyes that appear to gaze downward
• Irritability
• Seizures
• Separated sutures
• Sleepiness
• Vomiting
Symptoms that may occur in older children can include:
• Brief, shrill, high-pitched cry
• Changes in personality, memory, or the ability to reason or think
• Changes in facial appearance and eye spacing
• Crossed eyes or uncontrolled eye movements
• Difficulty feeding
• Excessive sleepiness
• Headache
• Irritability, poor temper control
• Loss of bladder control (urinary incontinence)
• Loss of coordination and trouble walking
• Muscle spasticity (spasm)
• Slow growth (child 0-5 years)
• Slow or restricted movement
• Vomiting
Exams and Tests
When a health care provider taps fingertips on the skull, there may be abnormal sounds that indicated thinning and separation of skull bones. Scalp veins may appear stretched or enlarged.
Part or the entire head may be larger than normal. Enlargement is most commonly seen in the front part of the head. Head circumference measurements, repeated over time, may show that the head is getting bigger.
The eyes may look "sunken in." The white part of the eye may appear above the colored part of the eye, given the eyes a "setting-sun" appearance. Reflexes may be abnormal.
A head CT scan is one of the best tests for identifying hydrocephalus. Other tests that may be done include:
• Arteriography
• Brain scan using radioisotopes
• Cranial ultrasound (an ultrasound of the brain)
• Lumbar puncture and examination of the cerebrospinal fluid (rarely done)
• Skull x-rays
Treatment
The goal of treatment is to reduce or prevent brain damage by improving the flow of CSF.
The blockage may be surgically removed, if possible. If the blockage cannot be removed, a shunt (flexible tube) may be placed within the brain to allow CSF to flow around the blocked area. The shunt tubing travels to another part of the body, such as the abdomen, where the extra CSF can be absorbed.
Antibiotics are given if there are signs of infection. Severe infections may require the shunt to be removed.
Another option is endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV), which relieves pressure without replacing the shunt.
Removing or burning away (cauterizing) the parts of the brain that produce CSF may reduce CSF production.
Follow-up examinations generally continue throughout the child's life. These are done to check the child's developmental level and to treat any intellectual, neurological, or physical problems.
Visiting nurses, social services, support groups, and local agencies can provide emotional support and assist with the care of a child with hydrocephalus who has significant brain damage.
Outlook (Prognosis)
Untreated hydrocephalus has a 50-60% death rate, with the survivors having varying degrees of intellectual, physical, and neurological disabilities.
The outlook for treated hydrocephalus depends on the cause. Hydrocephalus that is caused by disorders not associated with infection has the best outlook. Persons with hydrocephalus caused by tumors usually do very poorly.
Most children with hydrocephalus that survive for 1 year will have a fairly normal life span. Approximately a third will have normal intellectual function, but neurological difficulties may persist.
Possible Complications
Shunt placement may lead to blockage. Symptoms of such a blockage include headache and vomiting. Surgeons may be able to help the shunt open without having to replace it.
There may be other problems with the shunt, such as kinking, tube separation, or infection in the area of the shunt.
Other complications may include:
• Complications of surgery
• Infections such as meningitis or encephalitis
• Intellectual impairment
• Nerve damage (decrease in movement, sensation, function)
• Physical disabilities
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Seek immediate medical care if your child has any symptoms of this disorder. Go to the emergency room or call 911 if emergency symptoms occur, which include:
• Breathing problems
• Extreme drowsiness or sleepiness
• Feeding difficulties
• Fever
• High-pitched cry
• No pulse (heart beat)
• Seizures
• Severe headache
• Stiff neck
• Vomiting
You should also call your health care provider if the child has been diagnosed with hydrocephalus and the condition gets worse and you are unable to care for him or her at home.
Prevention
Protect the head of an infant or child from injury. Prompt treatment of infections and other disorders associated with hydrocephalus may reduce the risk of developing the disorder.
Alternative Names
Water on the brain
Selasa, 17 Ogos 2010
What is Stevens Johnson Syndrome??
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome is a potentially deadly skin disease that usually results from a drug reaction. Another form of the disease is called Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis, and again this usually results from a drug-related reaction. Both forms of the disease can be deadly as well as very painful and distressing. In most cases, these disorders are caused by a reaction to a drug, and one drug that has come under fire lately is the cox-2 inhibitor Bextra, which is already linked to these disorders.
There are other drugs that have been linked to Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, and these include some other NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs), Allopurinol, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine, barbiturates, anticonvulsants, and sulfa antibiotics. The condition can sometimes – although not very often – be attributed to a bacterial infection, and in some cases there is no known cause for the onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. However, the most common cause is through drug related reaction.
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome can affect any age group. However, it occurs most commonly in older people, and this could be because older people tend to use more of the drugs associated with the disease and are therefore collectively more at risk from the disease. People that have AIDS are also at an increased risk of contracting Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Those in the higher risk groups are urged to remain vigilant for any signs of these skin diseases, and are also advised to remain well informed about the symptoms that could indicate the presence or onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis.
The symptoms :
Both Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis can start with non-specific symptoms such as cough, aching, headaches, and feverishness. This may be followed by a red rash across the face and the trunk of the body, which can continue to spread to other parts of the body. The rash can form into blisters, and these blisters can form in areas such as the eyes, mouth and vaginal area. The mucous membranes can become inflamed, and with Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis layers of the skin can also come away with ease and often the skin peels away in sheets. The hair and nails can also come away in some cases, and sufferers can become cold and feverish.
With Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis the most common cause of death is infection, which can enter through the exposed areas. This disease can leave the skin looking as though it has been burned, and areas where skin has flayed away can seep copiously and quickly become infected.
Treating these diseases:
Those suffering from SJS or TEN are treated in hospital, and if the cause of the problem is drug related then the drugs are stopped with immediate effect. Surviving patients are treated intravenously to replace any lost fluids, and the skin is left to re-grow on its own. However, the chances of survival can be hit and miss depending on the level of damage and the degree of infection incurred by the patient.
It is vital that those taking drugs that could result in these skin diseases are vigilant and can identify the danger signs associated with these problems. Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis can be deadly, and the earlier the symptoms are recognised the faster treatment can be initiated.
Of course, those affected by drugs in this way – or the families of those that have passed away from these skin problems – have every right to file for compensation against the manufacturer of the drug in question. Lawyers now specialize in this type of litigation, and those that feel as though they have grounds for compensation are advised to go through an experienced drugs litigation lawyer.
Stevens Johnson Syndrome Symptoms
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome is a potentially deadly skin disease that usually results from a drug reaction. Another form of the disease is called Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis, and again this usually results from a drug-related reaction. Drugs that have been linked to Stevens-Johnson Syndrome include NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs), Allopurinol, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine, barbiturates, anticonvulsants, and sulfa antibiotics. In some cases, the condition is caused by a bacterial infection, and in many cases there is no known cause for the onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis.
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome can affect any age group. However, it occurs most commonly in older people, and this could be because older people tend to use more of the drugs associated with the disease and are therefore collectively more at risk from the disease. People that have AIDS are also at an increased risk of contracting Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Those in the higher risk groups are urged to remain vigilant for any signs of these skin diseases, and are also advised to remain well informed about the symptoms that could indicate the presence or onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis.
Symptoms of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome / Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis:
Both Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis can start with non-specific symptoms such as:
• Coughing
• Aching
• Headaches
• Feverishness
• Vomiting
• Diarrhoea
This is usually followed by a red rash across the face and the trunk of the body, which can continue to spread to other parts of the body. Blisters then form across the body in places such as the nose, moth, eyes, and genital areas, and the mucous membrane becomes inflamed. With some people the nails and hair begin to come out as well. In the case of Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis patients, the skin can start to come away in sheets leaving exposed flesh that could be likened to serious burning and is very susceptible to infection.
Both of these disease variations are potentially deadly. In drug related cases, the symptoms for both diseases can take one or two weeks to manifest from the first time the patient takes the drug.
Treatment for Stevens-Johnson Syndrome / Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis are very serious, potentially deadly conditions and have to be treated accordingly. Firstly, the cause of the condition has to be identified if possible. So, if the cause if drug related, doctors can stop the drug immediately. In the case of a new infection on top of the condition or a bacterial infection, doctors may use a suitable antibiotic. In severe cases, the patient is treated in a burns unit. Patients have to be treated in meticulously hygienic environments to alleviate the risk of further infection, which could result in death. In cases where the patients has lost a lot of fluid through seeping areas where the skin has come away, intravenous fluid replacement may be required. The hospital may also use topical and oral corticosteroids to treat affected areas.
There are other drugs that have been linked to Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, and these include some other NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs), Allopurinol, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine, barbiturates, anticonvulsants, and sulfa antibiotics. The condition can sometimes – although not very often – be attributed to a bacterial infection, and in some cases there is no known cause for the onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. However, the most common cause is through drug related reaction.
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome can affect any age group. However, it occurs most commonly in older people, and this could be because older people tend to use more of the drugs associated with the disease and are therefore collectively more at risk from the disease. People that have AIDS are also at an increased risk of contracting Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Those in the higher risk groups are urged to remain vigilant for any signs of these skin diseases, and are also advised to remain well informed about the symptoms that could indicate the presence or onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis.
The symptoms :
Both Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis can start with non-specific symptoms such as cough, aching, headaches, and feverishness. This may be followed by a red rash across the face and the trunk of the body, which can continue to spread to other parts of the body. The rash can form into blisters, and these blisters can form in areas such as the eyes, mouth and vaginal area. The mucous membranes can become inflamed, and with Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis layers of the skin can also come away with ease and often the skin peels away in sheets. The hair and nails can also come away in some cases, and sufferers can become cold and feverish.
With Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis the most common cause of death is infection, which can enter through the exposed areas. This disease can leave the skin looking as though it has been burned, and areas where skin has flayed away can seep copiously and quickly become infected.
Treating these diseases:
Those suffering from SJS or TEN are treated in hospital, and if the cause of the problem is drug related then the drugs are stopped with immediate effect. Surviving patients are treated intravenously to replace any lost fluids, and the skin is left to re-grow on its own. However, the chances of survival can be hit and miss depending on the level of damage and the degree of infection incurred by the patient.
It is vital that those taking drugs that could result in these skin diseases are vigilant and can identify the danger signs associated with these problems. Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis can be deadly, and the earlier the symptoms are recognised the faster treatment can be initiated.
Of course, those affected by drugs in this way – or the families of those that have passed away from these skin problems – have every right to file for compensation against the manufacturer of the drug in question. Lawyers now specialize in this type of litigation, and those that feel as though they have grounds for compensation are advised to go through an experienced drugs litigation lawyer.
Stevens Johnson Syndrome Symptoms
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome is a potentially deadly skin disease that usually results from a drug reaction. Another form of the disease is called Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis, and again this usually results from a drug-related reaction. Drugs that have been linked to Stevens-Johnson Syndrome include NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs), Allopurinol, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine, barbiturates, anticonvulsants, and sulfa antibiotics. In some cases, the condition is caused by a bacterial infection, and in many cases there is no known cause for the onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis.
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome can affect any age group. However, it occurs most commonly in older people, and this could be because older people tend to use more of the drugs associated with the disease and are therefore collectively more at risk from the disease. People that have AIDS are also at an increased risk of contracting Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Those in the higher risk groups are urged to remain vigilant for any signs of these skin diseases, and are also advised to remain well informed about the symptoms that could indicate the presence or onset of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis.
Symptoms of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome / Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis:
Both Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis can start with non-specific symptoms such as:
• Coughing
• Aching
• Headaches
• Feverishness
• Vomiting
• Diarrhoea
This is usually followed by a red rash across the face and the trunk of the body, which can continue to spread to other parts of the body. Blisters then form across the body in places such as the nose, moth, eyes, and genital areas, and the mucous membrane becomes inflamed. With some people the nails and hair begin to come out as well. In the case of Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis patients, the skin can start to come away in sheets leaving exposed flesh that could be likened to serious burning and is very susceptible to infection.
Both of these disease variations are potentially deadly. In drug related cases, the symptoms for both diseases can take one or two weeks to manifest from the first time the patient takes the drug.
Treatment for Stevens-Johnson Syndrome / Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis
Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis are very serious, potentially deadly conditions and have to be treated accordingly. Firstly, the cause of the condition has to be identified if possible. So, if the cause if drug related, doctors can stop the drug immediately. In the case of a new infection on top of the condition or a bacterial infection, doctors may use a suitable antibiotic. In severe cases, the patient is treated in a burns unit. Patients have to be treated in meticulously hygienic environments to alleviate the risk of further infection, which could result in death. In cases where the patients has lost a lot of fluid through seeping areas where the skin has come away, intravenous fluid replacement may be required. The hospital may also use topical and oral corticosteroids to treat affected areas.
what is myasthenia gravis and the causes??
- Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease characterized by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal (voluntary) muscles of the body. The name myasthenia gravis, which is Latin and Greek in origin, literally means "grave muscle weakness." With current therapies, however, most cases of myasthenia gravis are not as "grave" as the name implies. In fact, for the majority of individuals with myasthenia gravis, life expectancy is not lessened by the disorder.
- The hallmark of myasthenia gravis is muscle weakness that increases during periods of activity and improves after periods of rest. Certain muscles such as those that control eye and eyelid movement, facial expression, chewing, talking, and swallowing are often, but not always, involved in the disorder. The muscles that control breathing and neck and limb movements may also be affected.
- Myasthenia gravis is caused by a defect in the transmission of nerve impulses to muscles. It occurs when normal communication between the nerve and muscle is interrupted at the neuromuscular junction - the place where nerve cells connect with the muscles they control. Normally when impulses travel down the nerve, the nerve endings release a neurotransmitter substance called acetylcholine. Acetylcholine travels through the neuromuscular junction and binds to acetylcholine receptors which are activated and generate a muscle contraction.
- In myasthenia gravis, antibodies block, alter, or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction which prevents the muscle contraction from occurring. These antibodies are produced by the body's own immune system. Thus, myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease because the immune system - which normally protects the body from foreign organisms - mistakenly attacks itself.
Ahad, 8 Ogos 2010
Top 10 Healthy Lifestyles Tips
Living a healthy lifestyle doesn't have to be hard. It just takes the motivation to change our bad habits into good, healthy ones. Below is a list of 10 healthy lifestyle tips to get you started. Once you start, you can come up with more healthy choices that work for you.
o The first thing is to eat a balanced diet. Eat more fruits and vegetables and get rid of the high sugar, processed foods. Along with eating better is getting the right nutrients in the system.
o So the second thing is to take vitamins and minerals to help your body work properly.
o The third tip is to quit all those nasty unhealthy habits. Smoking, drinking, drugs, chewing tobacco, whatever your vice may be quit now. You are in charge of your health and living a healthier lifestyle means getting rid of the things that may kill you.
o The fourth thing to do is exercise. Exercise makes you feel good and can motivate you to get other things done as well.
o Along with exercise, number five is making sure you see a doctor each year for an annual physical. This is more important in women, but men should be seeing a doctor every 2-3 years to make sure there are no big health concerns.
o The sixth is to surround yourself with a strong support network, or a group of people who will be there for you and participate in a healthy lifestyle as well.
o Your family and friends can help you with the seventh tip, have fun and enjoy life.
o Eighth tip is to create a good balance between work and play.
o The final two tips are to accept yourself for the unique individual you are and love what you do. If you can accept yourself, the good and the bad, it will show in all you do. Your job is something you will be doing for at least the next 20 years, so you should love it. If you don't keep looking until you find something you do love.
o The first thing is to eat a balanced diet. Eat more fruits and vegetables and get rid of the high sugar, processed foods. Along with eating better is getting the right nutrients in the system.
o So the second thing is to take vitamins and minerals to help your body work properly.
o The third tip is to quit all those nasty unhealthy habits. Smoking, drinking, drugs, chewing tobacco, whatever your vice may be quit now. You are in charge of your health and living a healthier lifestyle means getting rid of the things that may kill you.
o The fourth thing to do is exercise. Exercise makes you feel good and can motivate you to get other things done as well.
o Along with exercise, number five is making sure you see a doctor each year for an annual physical. This is more important in women, but men should be seeing a doctor every 2-3 years to make sure there are no big health concerns.
o The sixth is to surround yourself with a strong support network, or a group of people who will be there for you and participate in a healthy lifestyle as well.
o Your family and friends can help you with the seventh tip, have fun and enjoy life.
o Eighth tip is to create a good balance between work and play.
o The final two tips are to accept yourself for the unique individual you are and love what you do. If you can accept yourself, the good and the bad, it will show in all you do. Your job is something you will be doing for at least the next 20 years, so you should love it. If you don't keep looking until you find something you do love.
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